Asia Minor, a meeting ground of Asiatic and European civilizations, received numerous imprints left by the peoples who occupied it. Since the end of six hundred years of rule in Europe and the Middle East by the Ottoman Turkish dynasty in 1924, musicians and historians in the modern Turkish republic have attempted to preserve substantial elements of their rich Ottoman heritage under heading of a single repertoire, borrowing the notions of "classical music" (klasik muzik) and "art music" (sanat muzigi) from Europe to distinguish these from "folk" and "popular" forms. Their motivation for this was, in part, political; if preservation of these repertoires was to succeed, it would be necessary to separate them from the discredited Ottoman political system and from Islam. One further similarity between the Turkish and European classical repertoires should also be mentioned: both survive, even thrive, only with help of private and governmental subsidy rather than through the market place. Despite the elite status which clings to them, when measured in financial terms or as a portion of total record sales, both must be seen as minority repertoires within their respective cultures.
In the classical European music certain basic principles of composition have united a wide variety of styles for the last four hundred years. These are constructed from a widely-shared tonal language in which melodies are understood to be supported by a sturdy lattice of tones called chords which are assumed to be present even if they are not actually sounded. Similarly, uniting the present day Turkish classical music is an equally sturdy and developed language, consisting of rhythmic modes (usul) and melodic modes (makam) based on a theoretical division of the whole tone into nine equal parts. (Note that on piano the whole tone is divided into two parts.) These musical principles are passed on primarily through oral tradition and provide the framework for all composing and improvising. Although the music coming out of the Ottoman tradition is strictly melodic in its structure and relies not at all on harmony for its development, in one way, at least, it might be compared to Western jazz: in both traditions, mastery of the art of improvisation according to a traditional discipline (in Turkish: Taksim) is considered equal in importance to the mastery of a large repertoire of composed music.
The major elements of Turkish classical music are the Ottoman Court music and the Mevlevi whirling ceremony music. The musicians of the latter were closely associated with the most educated stratum of Ottoman society and closely intertwined with the Ottoman court music.
Turkish folk music consists of urban folk music and village music. As opposed to the urban folk music which relies on makam, Turkish village music, except the influences of a few makams, is not created in a makam environment. Thus, it is in considerable contrast to the Turkish art music. The urban folk music is occasionally performed at the end of art music performances; Turkish village music is less incorporated.
Small choruses appeared first in the early 18th century in the Ottoman Court as part of fasil (suite in a given makam) where both men and woman were allowed to sing. However, this music was not made available to the society, making the formation of choruses difficult. For 20th century players of Turkish music the Court musician Tanburi Cemil Bey (1871-1916) has been considered a major bridge between the old court-patronized Ottoman musician and the modern concert performer for the middle class. He was a legendary player of numerous stringed instruments, and is credited with broadening the scope of makam composition and improvisation through the influence of Turkish village music and European concert music.
Although during the early years of the Republic, a "Presidential Fasil Group" was established which performed Turkish classical music, Tanburi Cemil's son Mesut Cemil Bey was the first to establish a large chorus, similar to the European counterparts, at the Ankara State Radio in 1937. This new chorus interpretation of the Turkish classical music soon spread to Istanbul and Izmir radios. The Istanbul Municipality Chorus was established in the 1940s. Today in Turkey the following cities host state supported Turkish classical music choruses: Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Bursa Edirne, Samsun, Elazig, Diyarbakir, and Konya. These 50- or more-member choruses give concerts in the concert season, and in summer they participate in the music fairs held in Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir. Two additional choruses, one in Konya and one in Istanbul specialize in Sufi music. The Izmir chorus attempts to incorporate polyphonism to its performance on a trial basis. The Istanbul State Chorus consists of 25 female and 25 male vocalists. Typically, four violins, three kemenches (small fiddle), four neys (end-blown flute), two violoncellos, 3 tanburs (long necked lute), 3 uds (short necked lute), 3 kanuns (zither) and two yayli (bowed) tanburs (long necked lute) accompany the singers. This is the most published chorus having numerous CDs and music cassettes issued in Turkey. In 1991 UNESCO issued the CD "Turkish Classical Music" (UNESCO D8303) by this chorus as a tribute to Yunus Emre, an Anatolian poet/singer/minstrel on the occasion of his 750th birthday.
A considerable number of Turkish classical music choruses are supported by private enterprise, municipalities, and musical societies. For example, in Istanbul it is estimated that the number of such choruses is 85. Although the state conservatories educate most of the musicians, the contribution of these private choruses have been significant. In particular, Uskudar Musical Society and Advanced Turkish Music Society have been in existence for approximately 55 years. Almost all 30 universities throughout the country have both Turkish and European classical music and Turkish village music choruses. These are well received by the society and thriving.
Although village music is sung in small groups in rural areas at any time, large village music choruses were also first established in the early 1940's within Ankara and Istanbul state radios. Their success is comparable to that of classical choruses. Today the state supports Turkish village music choruses in the following cities: Istanbul, Ankara, Sivas, Sanliurfa, Malatya and Bayburt. The private support of the Turkish village choruses is comparable to that of Turkish classical music.
The European classical music choruses in Turkey are thriving along with Turkish classical, village and sufi music choruses. Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir and Adana have symphony orchestras. The state supports five opera and ballet choruses. Turkish Radio and Television Establishment and the State both have polyphonic choruses. The other choruses in European classical music are: ten choruses in conservatories, thirty choruses in the music departments of higher education, another thirty choruses in universities, five choruses belonging to the Ankara-based Polyphonic Choruses Association, polyphonic choruses of Ankara and Mersin, chorus of the Blind Citizens Society, and other private choruses.
Numerous high school and private school choruses, youth and childrens choruses also exist in Turkey. There are Turkish classical and village music choruses in Western European countries, USA and Canada.
It is clear that Turkish society appreciates choral music in both European and Turkish classical, and in Turkish village forms.
For further information about the European classical music choruses in Turkey contact: Polifonik Korolar Dernegi, (Polyphonic Choruses Association), 364 Sokak No.118, Batikent 06370 Ankara, Turkiye, Tel: (312) 354-2895, or to their branch at: Gokdelen 13/1311, Kizilay 06650 Ankara, Turkiye, Tel: (312) 418-8820 or (312) 418-5437, Fax: (312) 425-9690.
The author is grateful to Irfan Dogrusoz, Robert Labaree, Frederick Stubbs and Gurel Aykal for useful discussions.
Prof. Turgay Erturk <[email protected]>
Turgay Erturk is a master saz player of Turkish village music. He plays ud, violin an yayli tanbur in a 30-member Connecticut-based Turkish classical music chorus, and is a member of Vermont-based Istanbul Ensemble. Currently he is a Professor of Materials Engineering at the University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA 01854.