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<\/p>\nTurkey and the European Union
\nBy: Selcen \u00d6ner
\nLanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
In Turkey and the European Union<\/em>, Selcen \u00d6ner takes the issue of Turkey and its pursuit of membership in the European Union, which has a long and tenuous history, and isolates for analysis one of the most contentious elements, the role of identity. In doing so, she highlights how the question of Turkey\u2019s membership in the European Union (EU) has been a catalyst for driving the debate about what European identity means. This work, which was mostly researched and written prior to 2008, provides an interesting commentary on two issues which remain unresolved: first, what is Europe and what does it mean to be European, and, second, what is the relationship of Turkey to the European Union. These two questions, while in some senses independent of each other, have become intertwined through Turkey\u2019s accession process, and \u00d6ner notes that \u201cthe interactions between Europe and the Turks have been always [sic] influential on construction of European identity and Turkish identity\u201d (192). Thus, \u00d6ner\u2019s consideration of the construction of identity is a relevant and helpful effort in understanding the current debates over Turkey\u2019s accession to the European Union.<\/p>\n Book Summary<\/strong><\/p>\n The concept of \u201cEurope\u201d is used in various places throughout history as a geographical, cultural, and a political term, and \u00d6ner begins with an attempt to elucidate what the idea of \u201cEurope\u201d is. In early Greek usage, the term marked out Athens and Sparta from other parts of Greece. It was then later expanded to distinguish the continent from Africa and Asia (3-4). By the Middle Ages, Europe became closely connected with the idea of Christendom. At this point, \u00d6ner introduces a concept to which she returns multiple times throughout the book: the idea of the \u201cother\u201d being the basis for identity. The \u201cother\u201d of Europe was not a fixed entity and would change during different periods and \u201cespecially from the fifteenth until the eighteenth century, the \u2018Ottoman Turks\u2019 became the \u2018other\u2019 of Europe\u201d (5). \u00a0In the aftermath of the Enlightenment the idea of Europe moved beyond its connection with Christendom to the European state system. This state system and, in time, the political ideas that accompanied it came to be associated with what Europe was.<\/p>\n In analyzing the role of identity, \u00d6ner adopts a social constructivist approach to the issue. She provides a basic introduction to the approach of social constructivism and interacts with the work of Wendt, among others, in showing the importance of identity. For \u00d6ner, social constructivism provides the best theoretical vantage point for considering the \u201ctransformatory process of integration and helps to understand how the integration process affects states\u2019 identity, interests and behaviour\u201d (41). The process of constructing the European Union in particular is not simply one of integrating institutions but is a construction process of ideas, identities and norms. In the post-World War II era, \u201cEurope\u201d and \u201cEuropean identity\u201d refer primarily to an individual or group\u2019s orientation towards the EU while EU identity is related to the EU\u2019s presence in the world (49). Neither of these is a fixed term but are continually changing through what \u00d6ner terms as \u201cThe construction process\u201d \u00a0which for \u201cEU identity refers to [\u2026] a collective identity among its Member States and their level of acting with one voice about different international issues.[\u2026] European identity refers to a collective identity among the citizens of the EU which may be differentiated between civic and cultural European identity\u201d (53). Which of these two identities becomes dominant\u2013 civic or cultural \u2013will be an important factor in shaping the future of the EU. While on the hand the \u201cmain characteristic\u201d of Europe in cultural and religious terms is \u201cdiversity,\u201d (55) in terms of civic identity and shared values the identity is rather strong (58). Within the EU there is a debate over which of these two provides the stronger or more lasting basis for European identity. This process of cultivating European identity is not meant to replace national identity, but rather there is a need in some sense for the European identity to be incorporated into the identity of the member states (40, 72-75).<\/p>\n These concepts of identity have been cultivated through various efforts and institutions of the EU project. The EU project \u201chas been mostly an elite driven process\u201d and as such there has been a gap between the general public perception and the opinions of the elites as these efforts have met with variegated success. \u00d6ner considers the roles of different EU institutions from the European Commission and European Parliament to the European Court of Justice and European Council and Council of Ministers. An interesting observation here is that while younger generations are typically more likely to have positive feelings towards the EU, they also have greater expectations. While the EU project arose in post-War Europe, \u201cthe young generations found peace as already given, thus they expect new measures from the EU that can positively affect their daily lives\u201d (108). This has the potential for increased feelings of identification, but if the EU fails to deliver in this regard- and the economic challenges of the past few years have raised this concern- then the value of the EU project may also come under greater scrutiny. Writing almost prophetically of the challenges that Europe is facing at present \u00d6ner says \u201cIf there will be crucial socioeconomic problems in the EU, it will negatively influence the level of support of the general public to the EU which can be a big challenge for the future of the EU\u201d (114). The benefits of the EU will need to be made more tangible to secure the support of the general public and make up the gap between them and the elites if there is to be an increase in feelings of European identity.<\/p>\n It is only at this point, after identifying the origins of the idea of European identity and some of the challenges and efforts being made to increase these feelings that \u00d6ner turns to the question of Turkey\u2019s membership. The interaction between Turks and Europe has been lengthy. \u00d6ner cites a good summary of this history: \u00a0\u201cTurks have been in Europe \u2018geographically since their arrival in Asia Minor in the eleventh century, economically since the sixteenth century as trade routes expanded and politically since the nineteenth century when the Ottoman Empire was included in the Concert of Europe\u201d (117). Despite the long history of interaction, the idea of Turks being European has never been widespread. Turks have been excluded from Europe for a variety of reasons, on the basis of religion from the early modern period through end of the nineteenth century, on the basis of civilization from the end of the nineteenth century through the end of World War I and on the basis of culture from the end of the Cold War to the present (118). While at some points in history Turks were constructed as the \u201cother\u201d of European identity that has not been the case since the 1950s, but neither have they been constructed as \u201cEuropean\u201d (119). Rather, in most of the instances and substantiated by interviews \u00d6ner conducted Turkey was somewhere in between, seen neither as the \u201cother\u201d nor as being fully European (120-122).<\/p>\n This issue of identity has been one of the major arguments put forward by opponents of Turkey\u2019s EU membership. In order to be granted candidate status it was necessary for Turkey to fulfill the Copenhagen political criteria. In October 2005 it was deemed that Turkey had fulfilled these obligations and formal negotiations were opened. The \u201cEuropeaness\u201d of Turkey, however, remains a major question. And \u201cthe more Turkey fulfills the Copenhagen criteria and adopts the EU acquis to its legislation, the more cultural argument of belonging to European civilization tend to be important in the debate on Turkey\u2019s membership [sic]\u201d (125). As Turkey comes into greater alignment in terms of political institutions and structures the other obstacles to its membership will become more evident. Turkey\u2019s membership has become a focal point for identifying those who are against deeper integration and those who support a more comprehensive level of integration of the member states. As was evidenced in the interviews carried out with a variety of European Ministers Turkey\u2019s membership will be both a \u201cchallenge and a contribution\u201d to the make-up of the EU (152-153). The interaction between the two throughout the membership process has been such that neither side has been left unchanged. While there is great focus on the transformation of Turkey to come into alignment with EU norms, the process has also influenced the construction process of European identity (179-180). In \u00d6ner\u2019s analysis, if in the end Turkey were to be integrated into the EU, then European identity must be primarily based on a civic basis. If, however, European identity is mainly on a cultural basis, then Turkey will probably not be integrated. Thus the nature of European identity is an important factor in determining the outcome of Turkey\u2019s EU membership process.<\/p>\n Strengths and Weaknesses<\/strong><\/p>\n The work by \u00d6ner offers another vantage point on the issue of Turkey and its pursuit of membership in the European Union, wading into issues of identity politics which oftentimes are under the surface of the political rhetoric she brings those to the surface. In this instance, the issue of identity, while not by any means the only critical factor, is certainly an issue of major significance. \u00d6ner interacts with a large number of sources and provides a theoretical grounding in social constructivism for her arguments. This brings a level of credibility and perspective to her arguments. Another major strength is the number of interviews conducted with European Ministers of Parliament from a variety of different national and political backgrounds. These interviews provide a firsthand glimpse into the thinking of some of the decision makers in the EU. Coupled together with the statistics from the Eurobarometer surveys, \u00d6ner is able to provide a glimpse at both public opinion and the perspective of elites on the issue.<\/p>\n One of the major issues that the book seemed to lack was a clear voice from the author. The work was well-researched, but in many places the flow of the argument was not well-structured. The reader is left to interpret exactly what the author is trying to communicate at a particular point. In some instances, such as demonstrating the ambiguity of European identity throughout history, this lack of clarity was acceptable, but at other places it seriously takes away from the value of the work. \u00d6ner\u2019s work would have been greatly strengthened had the author\u2019s voice and argumentation been more clearly demonstrated throughout the work.\u00a0 Another potential weakness of the book is that it is largely based on a PhD. thesis completed in 2008, though updated and revised for the 2011 publication, and the financial crisis in Europe and around the world, the frantic speed of political events in Turkey, the uprisings in the Middle East among other issues are not accounted for in this work. Obviously, no book will be completely current but the limited references to things that have happened post-2008 is another weakness of the work.<\/p>\n Conclusion<\/strong><\/p>\n Do issues of identity matter in international politics? In this case, the answer would seem to be yes. \u00d6ner provides a comprehensive overview of how the issue of European identity has been a key aspect in the process of Turkey\u2019s EU membership and how Turkey has been a key influencer of what it means to be European. While other factors, such as the economic troubles of the Eurozone or questions about the incorporation of a such a large population may eventually be the cause for Turkey joining or not joining the EU, the issue of identity will certainly be a part of the story. One of the key features of this process has been that the question of Turkey joining the EU has been the catalyst to expose what being \u201cEuropean\u201d means. This is a concept that is under continual construction and Turkey is both a challenge and a contributor to that process.<\/p>\n \u2014 <\/strong><\/p>\n J. Paul Barker<\/strong> is an Associate Editor of e-IR. He has a B.A. in History and a M.A. in Cross-Cultural Studies. He is currently studying in Istanbul, Turkey for a M.A. in International Relations.<\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Turkey and the European Union By: Selcen \u00d6ner Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011 In Turkey and the European Union, Selcen \u00d6ner takes the issue of Turkey and its pursuit of membership in the European Union, which has a long and tenuous history, and isolates for analysis one of the most contentious elements, the role of […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":83,"featured_media":56514,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[2939,21],"tags":[7925],"class_list":["post-56513","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-cultureart","category-eu-members","tag-turkey-eu"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/56513","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/83"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=56513"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/56513\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/56514"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=56513"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=56513"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.turkishnews.com\/en\/content\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=56513"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}